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Fewer people living in poverty than in the ‘golden mean’ of society – Latin America has finally transformed itself into a middle class region. At least that is the opinion held by some World Bank officials. But how does this resonate with the still persisting and high inequality in Latin America? In which way does such an assessment relate to the Latin American left turn during the last decades? Furthermore, what are we actually referring to with middle class? And more generally, what ideas of society lurk behind the term?
This special issue tries to address some of these topics, attempting to interrogate this analysis of international development organisations as well as discourses and policies predominant during the pink tide in Latin America. The authors of this issue seek to put the spotlight on more meaningful concepts of the middle class and associated accounts of social realities in Latin America.
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Fewer people living in poverty than in the ‘golden mean’ of society – Latin America has finally transformed itself into a middle class region. At least that is the opinion held by some World Bank officials. But how does this resonate with the still persisting and high inequality in Latin America? In which way does such an assessment relate to the Latin American left turn during the last decades? Furthermore, what are we actually referring to with middle class? And more generally, what ideas of society lurk behind the term?
This special issue tries to address some of these topics, attempting to interrogate this analysis of international development organisations as well as discourses and policies predominant during the pink tide in Latin America. The authors of this issue seek to put the spotlight on more meaningful concepts of the middle class and associated accounts of social realities in Latin America.
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Latin America, Middle Class, International Development Organisations
Dieser Artikel analysiert die Determinanten des Wachstums der Mittelschichten in Lateinamerika seit Beginn des neuen Jahrtausends, insbesondere während der relativ lang anhaltenden „Boom“-Periode von 2002 bis 2012/13. Davon ausgehend betrachtet er die innere Differenzierung und die Rolle dieser Mittelschichten zu Zeiten von Links- oder Mitte-links-Regierungen. Weiterhin geht er auf die beginnende Rezession 2013/14 in Lateinamerika ein und analysiert die damit verbundene partielle politische Umorientierung von Teilen der Mittelschichten. Am Ende des Beitrags finden sich theoretische und methodologische Reflexionen zur Konzeptualisierung von „Mittelschichten“ in Lateinamerika.
Adamovsky, Ezequiel (2013): ‚Clase media‘: reflexiones sobre los (malos) usos académicos de una categoría. In: Nueva Sociedad 247, 38-49.
Bárcena, Alicia/Serra, Narcis (Hg.) (2011): Clases medias y desarrollo en América Latina. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL-CIDOB.
Barozet, Emmanuelle/Fierro, Jaime (2011): Die Mittelschicht in Chile. Merkmale und Entwicklungen 1990–2011. In: KAS Auslandsinformationen 12, 26-43.
Behrens, Benedikt (2013): Eine unvorhergesehene Revolte. Protest in Brasilien. In: WeltTrends 92, 16-21.
Blanke, Svenja/Quiroga, Yesko (2013): Das demokratische Brodeln in Brasilien. In: Neue Gesellschaft /Frankfurter Hefte 10, 19-21.
Boris, Dieter (2008): Sozialstrukturen in Lateinamerika. In: Boris, Dieter et al. (Hg.): Sozialstrukturen in Lateinamerika. Ein Überblick. Wiesbaden: Springer, 9-43.
Boris, Dieter (2009): Lateinamerikas Politische Ökonomie. Aufbruch aus historischen Abhängigkeiten im 21. Jahrhundert? Hamburg: VSA.
Boris, Dieter (2014): Bolívars Erben. Linksregierungen in Lateinamerika. Köln: Papyrossa.
Boron, Atilio A. (2015): Argentina 2015: Claves de una derrota. El poder de la crítica y la crítica del poder. www.rebelión.org/phd?id=207117, 23.12.2015.
Busch, Alexander (2010): Wirtschaftsmacht Brasilien. Der grüne Riese erwacht. Bonn: Carl Hanser.
CEPAL (2011): Panorama social de América Latina. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL.
CEPAL (2013a): Estudio económico de América Latina y el Caribe 2013. Tres décadas de crecimiento desigual e inestable. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL.
CEPAL (2013b): Panorama social de América Latina 2012. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL.
CEPAL (2017) : Panorama social de América Latina 2016. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL.
Cornia, Giovanni Andrea (2015): Income Inequality in Latin America. Recent decline and prospects for its further reduction. Wider Working Paper 2015/020.
De Riz, Liliana (2010): La clase media argentina: conjeturas para interpretar el papel de las clases medias en los procesos políticos. In: Paramio, Ludolfo (Hg.): Clases medias y gobernabilidad en América Latina. Madrid: Pablo Iglesias, 69-101.
Del Cueto, Carla/Luzzi, Mariana (2010) Betrachtungen über eine fragmentierte Gesellschaft. Veränderungen der argentinischen Sozialstruktur (1983–2008). In: Birle, Peter et al. (Hg.): Argentinien heute. Politik, Wirtschaft, Kultur. Frankfurt/M: Iberoamericana, 33-54.
Ferreira, Francisco H.G. et al. (2013): La movilidad económico y el crecimiento de la clase media en América Latina, Washington, D.C.: Banco Mundial. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-9752-7
Franco, Rolando et al. (2011): Crece y cambia la clase media en América Latina: una puesta al día. In: Revista CEPAL 103, 7-26.
Franco, Rolando/Hopenhayn, Martín/León, Arturo (Hg., 2010): Clases medias en América Latina. Retrospectiva y nuevas tendencias México D.F.: Siglo XXI.
Groisman, Fernando (2013): Income polarization, the middle class and informal employment in the greater Buenos Aires. In: CEPAL Review 109.
Hidalgo, Manuel (2010): Clase media y conflictos sociopolíticos en Venezuela (1998–2009). In: Paramio, Ludolfo (Hg.): Clases medias y gobernabilidad en América Latina. Madrid: Pablo Iglesias, 265-301.
Hoffmann, Karl-Dieter (2012): Armut, soziale Ungleichheit und conditional cash transfer-Programme in Lateinamerika. In: KAS Auslandsinformationen 5, 100-131.
Hopenhayn, Martín (2010): Como ha cambiado la clase media en América Latina? Elementos par el debate. In: Paramio, Ludolfo (Hg.): Clases medias y gobernabilidad en América Latina. Madrid: Pablo Iglesias, 25-57.
Jost, Stefan (2014): Mittelschichten in Lateinamerika: Zwischen medialem Hype und differenzierter Analyse. In: KAS Auslandsinformationen 10, 8-33.
Kessler, Gabriel (2010): Hell und Dunkel – die Sozialstruktur Argentiniens im Wandel. In: Nueva Sociedad (Sonderheft Okt. 2010), 36-52.
Kessler, Gabriel/Di Virgilio, Maria Mercedes (2008): ‚Neue Armut‘ und Mittelschichten in Lateinamerika und Argentinien. In: Boris, Dieter et al. (Hg.): Sozialstrukturen in Lateinamerika. Wiesbaden: Springer, 95-119.
Krein, José Dari/Luis dos Santos, Anselmo (2012): La formalización del trabajo en Brasil. In: Nueva Sociedad 239, 90-101.
Leubolt, Bernhard/Tittor, Anne (2008): Semi-periphere Sozialstaatlichkeit in Lateinamerika – Argentinien und Brasilien im historischen Vergleich. In: Journal für Entwicklungspolitik, 24 (2), 116-141. https://doi.org/10.20446/JEP-2414-3197-24-2-116
López-Calva, Luis F./Lustig, Nora (Hg., 2010): Declining inequality in Latin America. A decade of progress? New York/Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution.
Manz, Thomas (2016): Brasilianischer Herbst. Ende der Ära PT oder Krise des politischen Systems? Berlin, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
Matthäus, Christian/Zeller, Kathrin (2014): Brasiliens neue Mittelschicht. Gekommen, um zu bleiben? In: KAS Auslandsinformationen 10, 34-89.
Palomino, Héctor/Pastrana, Ernesto (2013): Argentina: en busca de un nuevo modelo de desarrollo. In: Araníbar Arze, Antonio Rodríguez, Benjamín (Hg.): América Latina. ¿Del neoliberalismo al neodesarrollismo? Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 147-182.
Paramio, Ludolfo (Hg., 2010): Clases medias y gobernabilidad en América Latina, Madrid: Pablo Inglesias.
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Santana, Bianca/Silva, Daniela B. (2013): Brasil: ‚No es por 0,20. Es por los derechos‘. In: Nueva Sociedad 247, 4-15.
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Wehr, Ingrid (2011): Wohlfahrtsregime und soziale Ungleichheit in Lateinamerika. In: Wehr, Ingrid/Burchardt, Hans-Jürgen (Hg.): Soziale Ungleichheiten in Lateinamerika. Baden-Baden: Nomos, 257-281. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845229614-257
Wehr, Ingrid/Burchardt, Hans-Jürgen (Hg., 2011): Soziale Ungleichheiten in Lateinamerika. Neue Perspektiven auf Wirtschaft, Politik und Umwelt, Baden-Baden: Nomos.
Werz, Nikolaus (1999): Das Konzept der ‚clase media‘ und die Mittelschichten in Lateinamerika. In: Becker, Bert et al. (Hg.): Mythos Mittelschichten. Zur Wiederkehr eines Paradigmas in der Demokratieforschung. Bonn: Bouvier, 96-119.
Wortman, Ana (2010): Las clases medias argentinas, 1960–2008. In: Franco, Rolando et al. (Hg.): Las clases medias en América Latina. Retrospectiva y nuevas tendencias. México: CEPAL, 117-167.
Mittelschichten, Lateinamerika, Sozialstruktur, Linksregierungen
The debate about an adequate characterisation of the pink tide governments in Latin America has gained new momentum since the so-called progressive cycle seems to have come to an end. One of the most recent debates is inspired by the term pacto de consumo (pact of consumption). The main argument here is that the progressive governments have been able to raise the level of consumption of the popular classes and the (lower) middle classes. This article examines the hypothesis of a pact of consumption in the case of the Argentinian middle class and the Kirchnerist governments. The article argues, firstly, for a historic-relational concept of class, linking it through the regulationist term of mode of consumption to an intermediate level. Based on this notion of class, the article, secondly, explores the government´s strategies regarding expanding the consumption capacities of the middle class. Thirdly, it takes up the example of energy subsidies to show how the pact of consumption fostered by Kirchnerism should rather be understood as a reciprocal process of hegemonic integration than a unidirectional strategy from above.
Adamovsky, Ezequiel (2012): Historia de la clase media argentina. Buenos Aires: Planeta
Adamovsky, Ezequiel (2013): «Clase media»: reflexiones sobre los (malos) usos académicos de una categoría. In: Nueva Sociedad 247, 38-49.
Aglietta, Michel (2000): A Theory of Capitalist Regulation. London; New York: Verso.
Arceo, Enrique/Basualdo, Eduardo/Arceo, Nicolás (2009): La crisis mundial y el conflicto del agro. Buenos Aires: La Página.
ASAP-Asociación argentina de presupuesto (2015): Los subsidios energéticos en argentina. http://www.asap.org.ar/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Subsidios_asap_iae.pdf, 04.05.2016.
Balsa, Javier (2006a): Las tres lógicas de la construcción de la hegemonía. In: Theomai 14, 16–36.
Balsa, Javier (2010): Hegemonía y lenguaje. Paper: Jornadas Debates Actuales de la Teoría Política Contemporánea 2010, Buenos Aires. http://jjbalsa.blog.unq.edu.ar/modules/docmanager/view_file.php?curent_file=8&curent_dir=8, 23.6.2013.
Barrett, Patrick/Chavez, Daniel/Rodríguez-Garavito, César (2008): The New Latin American Left: Utopia Reborn. London: Pluto Press.
Birdsall, Nancy (2012): A note on the middle class in Latin America. In: Inequality in Asia and the Pacific (Manila: Asian Development Bank, 2013). http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2226504, 20.3.2015.
Bonnet, Alberto R. (2010): El lock-out agrario y la crisis política del kirchnerismo. In: Herramienta web 6. http://www.herramienta.com.ar/herramienta-web-6/el-lock-out-agrario-y-la-crisis-politica-del-kirchnerismo, 15.07.2013.
Boos, Tobias (2015): Hegemonía y prácticas cotidianas: la relación entre kirchnerismo y la clase media. Paper: III Congreso Latinoamericano y Caribe-o de Ciencias Sociales, 26-28 de agosto 2015 Sede Académica de FLACSO Ecuador, Quito.
Boos, Tobias (2017): Between structure and identity – Gramsci´s modo de ser y de vivir as a key concept to analyze the pact of consumption between Kirchnerism and the Argentinian middle class. Paper: V Seminario-Taller 2017, CIS/IDES-CONICET, 24.-27.04.2017, Buenos Aires.
Brand, Ulrich (2016): Lateinamerikas Linke: Ende eines Zyklus? Hamburg: VSA.
Brand, Ulrich/Dietz, Kristina (2014): (Neo-)Extraktivismus als Entwicklungsoption? In: Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Special Issue 48/2014 on Theories of Development, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 88–125.
Brand, Ulrich/Sekler, Nikola (2009): Postneoliberalism. A beginning debate. Development Dialogue 51. Uppsala: Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation.
Brand, Ulrich/Wissen, Markus (2012): Global Environmental Politics and the Imperial Mode of Living. In: Globalizations 9 (4), 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2012.699928
Castagno, Pablo (2015): Inside Latinamericanism. In: Historical Materialism, 23 (1), 243–264. https://doi.org/10.1163/1569206X-12341393
CIFRA/CTA (2015): Documento de trabajo no 14 la naturaleza política y la trayectoria económica de los gobiernos kirchneristas.
del Cueto/Luzzi (2016): Salir a comprar. In: Kessler, Gabriel (ed.): La sociedad argentina hoy. Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno/Fundación OSDE, 209-232.
Diaz Rosaenz, Micaela (2017): El consumo como dimensión de la ciudadanía contemporánea: Análisis a partir de los discursos presidenciales de Argentina y Brasil (2003-2015). Paper: 4th Congreso Latinoamericano y Caribe-o de Ciencias Sociales 17.-19.7 2017, Salamanca, Spain.
Evelin Goldstein/Matías Kulfas/Diego Margulis/Guido Zack (2016): Efectos macroeconómicos del sector energético en la Argentina en el período 2003-2014. In: Realidad Económica 298, 32-52.
Ferreira, Francisco/et al. (2013): Economic Mobility and the Rise of the Latin American Middle Class. The World Bank.
Figueiro, Pablo (2013): Lógicas sociales del consumo. Buenos Aires: UNSAM EDITA.
Gago, Veronica. (2015): Financialization of Popular Life and the Extractive Operations of Capital. In: South Atlantic Quarterly 114 (1), 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-2831257
Gago, Verónica/Sztulwark, Diego (2016): The Temporality of Social Struggle at the End of the "Progressive" Cycle in Latin America. In: South Atlantic Quarterly 115 (3), 606–614. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-3608664
Giarracca, Norma/Palmisano, Tomás (2012): Soja-Expansion und Agrarstreik. In: Forschungs- und Dokumentationszentrum Chile-Lateinamerika/Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung (eds.): Der Neue Extraktivismus. Berlin: FDCL-Verlag, 66-81.
Gold, Tomás (2015): Cacerolazos y legitimidad política en la Argentina reciente. Del "13-S" al "8-A". In: Annunziata, Rocío (ed.): Pensar las elecciones. Buenos Aires: CLACSO, 182-210.
Grugel, Jean/Riggirozzi, Pía (2012): Post-Neoliberalism in Latin America: Rebuilding and Reclaiming the State after Crisis. In: Development and Change 43 (1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2011.01746.x
Grüner, Eduardo (2011): Se está poniendo en debate si se está a favor o en contra del capitalismo en la Argentina. In: IPS-blog de debate. http://www.ips.org.ar/?p=3333, 20.9.2012.
Gudynas, Eduardo (2009): Diez tesis urgentes sobre el nuevo extractivismo. In: Schuldt, Jürgen et al. (eds.): Extractivismo, política y sociedad. Quito: CAAP/CLAES, 187–225.
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Infobae 26/3/2015: Por cadena nacional, Cristina Kirchner hizo anuncios para fomentar el consume. http://www.infobae.com/2015/03/26/1718349-por-cadena-nacional-cristina-kirchner-hizo-anuncios-fomentar-el-consumo, 1.11.2016.
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middle class, Kirchnerism, pact of consumption, progressive cycle, Latin America
In this article I analyse the relationship between rurality and middle classes. Few recent studies on middle classes have examined the role of rurality within middle class expansion processes at the global scale. I conducted a critical analysis of rurality and the middle classes in light of a recent proliferation of studies on global middle classes. This proliferation may be reflective of an evolving political and academic discourse within mainstream institutions, aimed at promoting the expansion of urban middle classes. Consequently, a critical analysis of this political and academic discourse attending to the various impacts of the expansion of urban middle classes on nature, and on rural areas and populations, is required. I applied mixed research methods in a case study of Colombia. The results indicated a paradox inherent in the expansion of middle classes. On the one hand, this expansion is aimed at reducing general social inequalities, and yet, on the other hand, it increases rural (and urban–rural) inequalities. Moreover, the expansion of urban middle classes reproduces land concentration and has negative impacts on nature. Concurrently, connections between urban and rural populations, along with new ruralities encompassing urban middle class populations, are evolving under the banner of sustainability. These trends reflect the complexity of structures of inequality in the connections between rural and urban populations.
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middle classes, rurality, environment, land distribution, social inequalities
The article details the production of a narrative about the New Middle Class (NMC) that is recently articulated in academic articles (see among others Neri 2016) and promotes a perspective disseminated by the World Bank, OECD, and The Economist. This narrative also supports governmental strategy to fight poverty. Fighting poverty has been on the Brazilian political agenda since the democratisation process began. However, there are different strategies to deal with this situation, one of which is specified in the Federal Constitution in terms of universal social rights for citizens’ status. The other is based on increasing the consumption power of the poor and is identified by the label of the NMC policies. Each of them has different consequences in terms of subjectivity and sociability.
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Brazil, new middle class, social development, social rights, social mobility